From the following list of states, TEN will be selected for the map quiz May 4. Note that in parentheses after the state name you will see the names of capitals and/or key cities that may help you remember the states. 1. Baja California Norte (Mexicali) 2. Coahuila (Saltillo) 3. Chiapas (Tonalá) 4. Chihuahua (Ciudad Juárez) 5. Guanajuato (Guanajuato, San Miguel de Allende, León) 6. Guerrero (Acapulco) 7. Jalisco (Guadalajara) 8. México (Toluca) 9. México, D.F. (México City) 10. Michoacán (Morelia) 11. Morelos (Cuernavaca, Taxco) 12. Nuevo León (Monterrey) 13. Oaxaca (Oaxaca) 14. Puebla (Puebla) 15. Quintana Roo (Cozumel) 16. Sonora (Nogales, Guaymas, Hermosillo) 17. Tamaulipas (Nuevo León, Ciudad Victoria) 18. Veracruz (Veracruz, Tampico) 19. Yucatán (Mérida) *************
“IDENTIFICATION” TOPICS FOR TEST #3: May 11, 2006 --FF From the text readings, clearly identify any five of the following choices in chapters VIII-X [a] Flores Magón brothers [b] Cananea strike issues [c] guerrilleros [d] Terrazas family[e] Decema Trágica [f] Plan de Ayutla [g] Plan de Guadalupe [h] bracero programs [i] Kahlo [j] the Maximato [k] effects of machismo [l] the Gold Shirt movement [m] Pancho Villa [n] Obregón [o] the new ejiditario [p] Communist activity in México [q] Diego Rivera [r] Siqueiros [s] Obregón [t] WILD CARD: name and identify one term or name from our study not used elsewhere in this test.
************* ESSAY TOPICS FOR TEST #3: May 11, 2006 Please note: there is some overlap of topics (arts, workers, etc.). If you pick essays including those features be sure to supply different information for each essay—no mere duplication of material already used in other essays. [1] México differs from Canada, the United States, and European countries in the matter of land ownership. Using specific terms for the various forms of land ownership, cite examples of the system, groups involved, efforts at land reform, and effects on the various social classes. [2] While sharing much from the Spanish colonial heritage with other Latin American nations, México’s development remains distinct from most of them in several ways. Pick one of the following and tell the story of its uniqueness using factual details: [a] the petroleum industry [b] labor unions [c] tensions with the United States OR [d] a different but appropriate topic of your choice about México’s unique experience. [3] Since México’s Revolution much of its national identity has been tied to public arts and architecture. [a] Pick and describe three major examples and [b] identify their unique features and [c] the people those who created them. [4] México has emerged as a major literary source for the Spanish-speaking world. Name three Mexican contributors to this field and for each identify one or more unique visions or contributions. [Playwrights, poets, journalists, novelists, critics, philosophers are all appropriate for this topic.] [5] México has experienced disappointment with presidents who began as defenders of the middle and lower economic classes (“have-nots”), but switched to support the interests of the already-wealthy. Name two of these and [a] cite specific goals or accomplishments and [b] specific changes they made that betrayed their original supporters. [6] México’s presidents have included a few who remained devoted to the middle and lower economic and social classes. Cite any two and for each list and identify their achievements. [7] Show you understand key developments in México since World War II (1945)—such as unique social and cultural trends, various population groups and their specific interests, major achievements and failures, i.e., the “ups and downs” of the country. [8] Beginning with the Porfiriata some heads of state in México have taken office in ways or left it in ways other than by fair elections. Pick any three of them and in a good paragraph or more for each, tell the key facts of their stories. [9] Explain application of the concept of “neoliberalism” in México’s economics, the nationalization/privatization swings, motives and roles of foreigners and outside financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, Export-Import bank in Mexico. Name specific products involved, financial considerations, effects on this Latin American nation and response by its various socio-economic classes. [10] Compare the amount and kind of Mexican democracy (or lack of it) in three or more specific situations since 1940: (possibly including the PRI one-party system, percent of public participation, rise of alternative parties, guerrilla resistance groups, the degree of freedom—press, religion, individual rights, etc.) [11] The role of the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico has varied from colonial times to the present. Cite examples (including earlier times periods before Chapter VIII if you wish) of the changing status and activities of the church. Feel free to add your comments and analysis about what the role should be in the foreseeable future, especially in light of major challenges from other Christian groups evangelizing in the region. [12] List and identify the other major features of U.S. relations with the México. Include explanation and effects of at least TWO of these: Chamizal settlement, NAFTA, undocumented alien immigration, oil and gas deals, illegal drugs, aid against Zapatista rebels; “Colossus of the North,” Alliance for Progress [13] In some of the arts—especially fiction, poetry, painting, music—Mexicans have won acclaim at home and abroad. Pick three examples of such creativity and identify the unique contributions by name and characteristics. Suggestion: As a minimum plan to include three or four good sentences for each of the three. [14] The text provides extensive information about the status of [a] women [b] workers (industrial and agricultural), and [c] indigenous people living on the land or in small villages. Pick two of the three and show that you understand the typical conditions, attempts at reform, and successes and failures they have experienced since independence and neocolonialism. [15] Pick three topics from oral reports by your classmates (not your own) and demonstrate that you have the main information from each (two standard-sized paragraphs for each).

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OVERVIEW OF STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE &... Major divisions of Mexican History I. Pre-European 50,000 BC?—1519 II. Conquest: 1519—1522 III. Colonized and organized to enrich mother country as “New Spain”1810; series of revolts, resistance actions by Indians, criollos, mestizos,

***IV. Wars of Independence, 1810—21 V. Empire and Early Republic, 1821—55 VI. Reform and French Intervention, 1855—67 VII. The Restoration, 1867—76 VIII. The Porfiriato, 1876—1910 IX. The Revolution of 1910 mostly PRI to present (except for Fox Quesada) For some historians the struggle for Mexican Independence began in December 1650 when the Irishman William Lamport (a.k.a. Guillen de Lampart) escaped from the jails of the Inquisition and posted his Proclamation of Independence on the walls of the city. Not only was this the first proclamation of independence in the New World, but the first ever to promise a democratically elected monarch, racial equality and land reform. Lamport wanted Mexico to break with Spain and to separate church and state forever. It was not to be. Lamport was quickly recaptured and burned at the stake as a heretic and Mexico had to wait another two centuries for independence. Background: 1803: Napoleon took Louisiana back from Spain/New Spain but sold it to the United States. In 1808 Napoleon deposed the Spanish king and replaced him with his brother, Joseph, precipitating revolution and the Peninsular War and, ultimately, his own downfall. México’s colonial rule crumbled, leaving a vacuum and different sides eager to fill it. Democracy was not the first system to take charge. Near the close of the 18th century, the people of New Spain had begun to rebel against their government. The Creoles resented the Spanish control of high offices and monopolies. They also disliked the political and economic reforms initiated by Spain to modernize the colony! Moreover, the Creoles wanted to be the custodians of the Spanish monarchy during the French takeover of Spain. They were also alarmed by the liberal ideas coming from the United States and France. Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821) was Mexico's struggle for independence from Spanish colonial rule. It started as an idealistic peasants' rebellion against their colonial masters but finally ended as an unlikely alliance between liberales (liberals) and conservadores (conservatives). In 1810, the Creoles, supported by the Indians and mestizos (people of Indian and Spanish blood), started a revolution for independence similar to America’s a few decades earlier. France’s revolution slightly later suggested other possibilities. Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, the parish priest of the small town of Dolores, was the leading figure and chief instigator of the Mexican Independence movement. Soon after becoming a priest, Hidalgo promoted the idea of an uprising by the native and mixed-blood peasantry against wealthy Spanish land-owners and aristocrats. He realized the need for diversification of industrial activities in an area that had the mines of Guanajuato as its major business. At the same time, during his seven years at Dolores, Hidalgo promoted discussion groups at his house, where indígenas, mestizos, criollos, and peninsulares were all welcomed. Among the goals of the rebellion are ending the colonial caste system, ending indigenous tribute, and defending the Catholic religion. Barely a year later, however, Hidalgo is captured and executed. Leadership of his movement is then taken over by another priest, José María Morelos. The themes of these discussions were current events and Hidalgo’s social and economic concerns. The secret plot for the independence movement was born out of these informal discussions and was directed against Spanish domination of political and economic life in New Spain. December 8, 1810, was set for the beginning of the uprising. Beginning of the War However, the plans were disclosed to the central government. The conspirators were alerted by Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez, la Corregidora, the wife of the Magistrate of Querétaro that orders had been sent for their arrest. Pressed by this new development, on September 16, 1810, Hidalgo decided to strike out for independence without delay (this date is celebrated as Mexico's independence day). The church bells summoned the people, and Hidalgo asked them to join him against the Spanish government and the peninsulares in the famous Grito de Dolores (Cry of Dolores): "Long live Our Lady of Guadalupe! Death to bad government! Death to the gachupines!" The crowd responded enthusiastically, and soon an angry mob was marching toward the regional capital in Guanajuato. Miners of Guanajuato joined with the native workers of Dolores in the massacre of all the peninsulares who resisted them, including the local chief colonial official, the intendente. At the first Independent Congress at Chilpancingo, Morelos formally declares Mexico’s independence from Spain From Guanajuato, the independence forces marched on to Mexico City after having captured Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, and Valladolid. On October 30, 1810, they encountered resistance at Monte de las Cruces, and, despite a rebel victory, lost momentum and failed to take Mexico City. After a few more victories, the revolutionary forces moved north toward Texas. In March of the following year, the insurgents were ambushed and taken prisoner in Monclova (in the present-day state of Coahuila). Hidalgo was tried as a priest by the Holy Office of the Inquisition and found guilty of heresy and treason. July 31, 1811, Hidalgo was executed by firing squad. His body was mutilated, and his head was displayed in Guanajuato as a warning to other would-be insurgents. José María Morelos y Pavón After the death of Hidalgo, José María Morelos y Pavón assumed the leadership of the revolutionary movement. Morelos took charge of the political and military aspects of the insurrection and further planned a strategic move to encircle Mexico City and to cut communications to the coastal areas. In June 1813, Morelos convened a national congress of representatives from all of the provinces, which met at Chilpancingo in the present-day state of Guerrero, to discuss the future of Mexico as an independent nation. The major points included in the document prepared by the congress were popular sovereignty, universal male suffrage, the adoption of Roman Catholicism as the official religion, abolition of slavery and forced labor, an end to government monopolies, and an end to corporal punishment. Despite initial successes by Morelos's forces, the colonial authorities broke the siege of Mexico City after six months, captured positions in the surrounding areas, and finally invaded Chilpancingo. In 1815 Morelos was captured and met the same fate as Hidalgo. Guadalupe Victoria and guerrilla war From 1815 to 1821, most of the fighting by those seeking independence from Spain was done by isolated guerrilla bands. Out of these bands rose two men, Guadalupe Victoria (whose real name was the more prosaic Manuel Félix Fernández) in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca, both of whom were able to command allegiance and respect from their followers. The Spanish viceroy, however, felt the situation was under control and issued a general pardon to every rebel who would lay down his arms. After ten years of civil war and the death of two of its founders, by early 1820 the independence movement was stalemated and close to collapse. The rebels faced stiff Spanish military resistance and the apathy of many of the most influential criollos. The violent excesses and populist zeal of Hidalgo's and Morelos's irregular armies had reinforced many criollos' fears of race and class warfare, ensuring their grudging acquiescence to conservative Spanish rule until a less bloody path to independence could be found. It was at this juncture that the machinations of a conservative military caudillo coinciding with a successful liberal rebellion in Spain made possible a radical realignment of the pro-independence forces. In what was supposed to be the final government campaign against the insurgents, in December 1820, Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent a force led by a royalist criollo officer, Agustín de Iturbide, to defeat Guerrero's army in Oaxaca. Iturbide, a native of Valladolid, had gained renown for the zeal with which he persecuted Hidalgo's and Morelos's rebels during the early independence struggle. A favorite of the Mexican church hierarchy, Iturbide was the personification of conservative criollo values, devoutly religious, and committed to the defense of property rights and social privileges; he was also disgruntled at his lack of promotion and wealth. Ferdinand VII of Spain: Iturbide's assignment to the Oaxaca expedition coincided with a successful military coup d'état in Spain against the new monarchy of Ferdinand VII. The coup leaders, who had been assembled as an expeditionary force to suppress the American independence movements, compelled a reluctant Ferdinand to sign the liberal Spanish constitution of 1812. When news of the liberal charter reached Mexico, Iturbide saw in it both a threat to the status quo and an opportunity for the criollos to gain control of Mexico. Ironically, independence was finally achieved when conservative forces in the colonies chose to rise up against a temporarily liberal regime in the mother country. After an initial clash with Guerrero's forces, Iturbide switched allegiances and invited the rebel leader to meet and discuss principles of a renewed independence struggle. While stationed in the town of Iguala, Iturbide proclaimed three principles, or "guarantees," for Mexico's independence from Spain: [1] Mexico would be an independent monarchy governed by a transplanted King Ferdinand or some other conservative European prince; [2] criollos and peninsulares would henceforth enjoy equal rights and privileges, and [3] the Roman Catholic Church would retain its privileges and religious monopoly. After convincing his troops to accept the principles (announced February 24, 1821 as the Plan de Iguala) Iturbide persuaded Guerrero to join his forces in support of the new conservative manifestation of the independence movement. A new army, the Army of the Three Guarantees, was then placed under Iturbide's command to enforce the Plan of Iguala. The plan was so broadly based that it pleased both patriots and loyalists. The goal of independence and the protection of Roman Catholicism brought together all factions under conservative rule to protect upper orders against the masses. In July, the last Viceroy, Juan O'Donojú, recognized Mexican independence in the Treaty of Córdoba. Feb 24, 1821 General Augustín de Iturbide signed the Plan of Iguala to establish the new nation and proclaimed himself Emperor Iturbide I. In the same year, the Austins began American settlement of Texas. 1823 General Santa Anna deposed Iturbide and declared a Republic. Bitter struggle began between centrists (conservatives) and federalists (liberals), continuing to 1860. 1824-1834 First federalist regime. Centrists allied with Scottish Rite Masons (Escoces) and federalists with York Rite Masons (Yorkinos). 1834-1846 Santa Anna turned his coat and led Centrists to power. Mar 1, 1836 Because of Santa Anna's centrization, NOTE: The “Texan heroes of the Alamo” died to restore the Mexican Constitution of 1824! Texas declared its independence and won it at the Battle of San Jacinto. Military History of Mexico Conflict Mexican War of Independence Date 1810-1821 Place Mexico Result Independence of Mexico Combatants Royalists and Spanish Mexico Strength 14,000 Soldiers 80,000 Soldiers Casualties 8,000 Killed or Wounded 15,000 Killed or Wounded 450,000 Civilian Casualties o *** *** It would be fought until its successful conclusion in 1821. A few hours before sunrise on September 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Creole who was a Catholic priest in the village of Dolores, Guanajuato, ordered the arrest of the Spaniards who lived in Dolores. He then rang the church bell, which customarily called the townspeople to mass. With the townspeople present, Hidalgo shouted his call to arms against Spain. That famous cry, known as "El Grito," is re-enacted all over present-day Mexico on the night of September 15th. Mexicans celebrate their independence on two consecutive days, the 15th and 16th of September. The independence movement started in earnest the moment Napoleon III, through political sleight-of-hand, proclaimed his brother Joseph Bonapart King of Spain. Guided by a group of intellectuals opposed to King Joseph’s rule, the Creoles urged their counterparts in the army to renounce their allegiance to the Spaniards. They were warned about the plot by army Creoles who refused to join the insurgents -- Hidalgo among them -- and were on their way to arrest them when Hidalgo called the people to arms, an act which is the subject of some debate among historians. No one really knows what Hidalgo actually told the people. Many respected historians believe he said, "¡Viva la Virgen de Guadalupe!" "Death to bad government.!" "Death to the gachupines!" (Gachupines is a derisive term for Spaniards.) Because the term "Mexico" at the time meant Mexico City, Hidalgo probably did not say "¡Viva Mexico!" The involvement of the Indians and the mestizos in the war of independence turned what had been a political maneuver into a class struggle. Hidalgo was captured and executed by the Spaniards before Mexico gained its independence. 1808 1810 creole priest Miguel Hidalgo launches Mexico’s first rebellion from Spain 1813 At the first Independent Congress at Chilpancingo, Morelos formally declares Mexico’s independence from Spain. However, he is later captured and executed by the Spanish. 1821 proclamation of the Plan of Iguala by Agustín de Iturbide The plan consists of three guarantees: “Church, union, and independence.” Under Iturbide, Mexico finally wins its independence from Spain. end of the colonial period 1822 proclamation of Iturbide as Agustín I, México’s first and only legitimate emperor 1823 Agustín I overthrown by his generals due to the arbitrary nature of his rule; proclamation of the Mexican Republic X. KEY PEOPLENear the close of the 18th century, the people of New Spain began to rebel against their government. The Creoles (Spaniards born in the new world) resented the Spanish control of high offices and monopolies. They also disliked the political and economic reforms initiated by Spain to modernize the colony. Moreover, the Creoles wanted to be the custodians of the Spanish monarchy during the French takeover of Spain and were against the oppression of the Indian population. They were also alarmed by the liberal ideas coming from the United States and France. In 1810, the Creoles, supported by the Indians and mestizos (people of Indian and Spanish blood), started a revolution for independence similar to America’s a few decades earlier. It would be fought until its successful conclusion in 1821. A few hours before sunrise on September 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Creole who was a Catholic priest in the village of Dolores, Guanajuato, ordered the arrest of the Spaniards who lived in Dolores. He then rang the church bell, which customarily called the townspeople to mass. With the townspeople present, Hidalgo shouted his call to arms against Spain. That famous cry, known as "El Grito," is re-enacted all over present-day Mexico on the night of September 15th. Mexicans celebrate their independence on two consecutive days, the 15th and 16th of September. The independence movement started in earnest the moment Napoleon III, through political sleight-of-hand, proclaimed his brother Joseph Bonapart King of Spain. Guided by a group of intellectuals opposed to King Joseph’s rule, the Creoles urged their counterparts in the army to renounce their allegiance to the Spaniards. They were warned about the plot by army Creoles who refused to join the insurgents -- Hidalgo among them -- and were on their way to arrest them when Hidalgo called the people to arms, an act which is the subject of some debate among historians. No one really knows what Hidalgo actually told the people. Many respected historians believe he said, "¡Viva la Virgen de Guadalupe!" "Death to bad government.!" "Death to the gachupines!" (Gachupines is a derisive term for Spaniards.) Because the term "Mexico" at the time meant Mexico City, Hidalgo probably did not say "¡Viva Mexico!" The involvement of the Indians and the mestizos in the war of independence turned what had been a political maneuver into a class struggle. Hidalgo was captured and executed by the Spaniards before Mexico gained its independence. KEY EVENTS Miguel Hidalgo 1753 - 1811 José Morelos y Pavón 1765 - 1815 Expulsion of the Jesuits (1767) Ignacio de Allende 1779 - 1811 Antonio López de Santa Anna 1794 - 1876 Nicolas Bravo 1786 - 1854 In 1808, Napoleon invaded Spain, and decided to impose his brother José Bonaparte, as king of Spain (1808-1810). The Criollos found in this circumstance the opportunity to seek their independence form Spain. Influenced by the concepts of liberty, equality and democracy proposed by the French philosophers Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and by the war of Independence of the United States, they decided to start a revolt. It was 1810, and their plan was to start the war on the 2nd of October. Unfortunately, their plans were discovered in early September. The movement was in trouble. They had two alternatives; either abandon their plans, or move faster and start the revolt immediately. Fortunately for our country they decided upon the second alternative. In the early hours of September 16, 1810, father Hidalgo, accompanied by several conspirators –Iganacio Allende, Doña Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez- rang the bell of his little church, calling everyone to fight for liberty. This was the beginning of the Independence War, which lasted 10 years. *** The stage for the upheaval and dissatisfaction that gave rise to Mexican independence was set by political and economic changes in Europe and its American colonies of the late 18th and 19th centuries. The French revolution and Napoleonic wars diverted attention of Spain from its colonies leaving a vacuum and increasing dissatisfaction and desire for local government. The forced removal of Ferdinand VII from the Spanish thrown and his replacement by Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother presented opportunity for Mexican intelligentsia to promote independence in the name of the legitimate Spanish king. From its inception the colonial government of New Spain was dominated by Spanish born Peninsulares or Guachapins, who held most leadership positions in the church and government, in contrast to Mexican-born Criollos (Creoles) who were the ten to one majority. Neither Peninsulares or upper class Criollos desired to involve the masses of native Indians and mestizos in government or moves for local control. In 1808 the Peninsulares learned of Viceroy Jose de Iturrigaray’s intent to form a junta with Creole factions, a move that he thought might make him King of an independent Mexican kingdom. In an armed attack on the palace, Peninsulares arrested Iturrigaray and replaced him with puppet Pedro Garibay after which they carried out bloody reprisals against Criollos who were suspected of disloyalty. Although reform movements paused, political and economic instability in Europe continued as well as hardship and unrest in the Americas. One liberal organization that was forced underground was the Literary Club of Queretaro which formed for intellectual discussion, but in practice became a planning organization for revolution. Independence- and reform-oriented thinkers also began to consider enlisting the native Indian, mestizo and lower class masses in wresting control from the Peninsulares and in armed independence movements. Queretaro was an important agricultural region that had suffered extensively by economic stalemate and failure. An active member of the group was Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a well-educated liberal priest who questioned policies of the church including clerical celibacy, banning certain literature, infallibility of the pope and the virgin birth of Christ. Hidalgo became the curator of Dolores in 1803 with primarily an Indian congregation whose languages he spoke and to whom he administered practical skills of life as much as religious doctrine. In Queretaro, Hidalgo met Capt. Ignacio Allende, a revolutionary thinker in the Spanish army. In spring 1810, Allende and Hidalgo planned an uprising for December of the year that leaked out to Spanish authorities and their arrest was ordered. In September 1810, Father Hidalgo was forced to prematurely distribute the Grito de Delores to his parishoners and nearby residents which was an appeal for social and economic reform. With little organization and no training, essentially a mob of thousands of primarily Indians and mestizos overwhelmed royal forces in Guanajuato, and proceeded to murder and loot both Peninsulares, Criollos and other "whites" in their path. The force continued to Mexico City and defeated royalist on the outskirts, but did not enter and occupy the city after which the ragged revolutionary army returned home. Hidalgo and his Creole officers were later able to assemble an army of 80,000 by payment with looted Peninsulare gold and assets. Viceroy Francisco Javier Venegas, and his soon to be successor Gen. Félix María Calleja del Rey responded to the insurgency with a vengeance and in January 1811 Hidalgo suffered a serious defeat outside Guadalajara where rebel forces were routed at Calderon Bridge. Bloody retaliation followed by mass executions of suspected rebel sympathizers by Spanish crown forces under Viceroy Calleja del Rey. Hidalgo and associates turned toward the northern provinces Nuevo Santander, Nuevo León, Coahuila and Texas for refuge where local sympathy for the rebellion and independence continued. Royalist forces in Nuevo Santander refused to fight against the insurgents as well as troops under Governor Manuel Antonio Cordero y Bustamante in Coahuila. As the royalist forces moved north to crush resistance, it was only in Coahuila and Texas that revolutionary events continued. On 21 March 1811, a periodic rebel turned loyalist, Ignacio Elizondo, ambushed Ignacio Allende, Father Hidalgo and associates at the Wells of Baján on the road to Monclova in Coahuila. Hidalgo and associates were captured and executed in Chihuahua. sdct *** Father Hidalgo's Grito de Delores From The Hidalgo Revolt by Hugh Hamill. At the core of Mexican patriotism is Hidalgo's Grito de Dolores. Every year, on the night of September 15-16, the President of the Republic "reenacts" the Grito on a balcony of the National Palace as the climax of the Independence Day celebrations. To do this with historical accuracy is well-nigh impossible, for no one knows precisely what Hidalgo said. The three principal contemporary reports fail to agree. Sotelo's account, the most confused and least authoritative, stated that the Grito was a short speech made from the window of the priest's house to the first group of followers who assembled before dawn. Hidalgo "animated them to begin vigorously the enterprise of our Independence, and raising his voice with great valor, said: Long Live Our Lady of Guadalupe, Long Live Independence." Pedro Garcia, who probably did not join the insurgent army until it passed through his native San Miguel el Grande, reported that after all the events of the night had occurred people began to assemble for early morning Mass at the parish church. They found no one there to conduct the service. Having heard rumors of the Cura's midnight activities, a large number of parishioners gathered in front of Hidalgo's house. The priest, seeing it was time to explain his actions and gain more adherents, came out of the entrance hall and said, "My friends and countrymen: neither the king nor tributes exist for us any longer. We have borne this shameful tax, which only suits slaves, for three centuries as a sign of tyranny and servitude; [a] terrible stain which we shall know how to wash away with our efforts. The moment of our freedom has arrived, the hour of our liberty has struck; and if you recognized its great value, you will help me defend it from the ambitious grasp of the tyrants. Only a few hours remain before you see me at the head of the men who take pride in being free. I invite you to fulfill this obligation. And so without a patria nor liberty we shall always be at a great distance from true happiness. It has been imperative to take this step as now you know, and to begin this has been necessary. The cause is holy and God will protect it. The arrangements are hastily being made and for that reason I will not have the satisfaction of talking to you any longer. Long live, then, the Virgin of Guadalupe! Long live America for which we are going to fight!" Juan de Aldama's account of the Grito was recorded only a few months after the event. His version indicates some practical considerations but omits mention of any climactic conclusion to Hidalgo's speech. At about eight o'clock in the morning "there were gathered more than six hundred men on foot and horseback for it was Sunday and they had come to Mass from the nearby Ranches, and the cura exhorted them to join him and help him defend the Kingdom because they [Yermo, Aguirre, et al.] wanted to turn it over to the French: that now oppression had reached an end: that there was no longer any tribute: that those who enlisted with horses and Arms would be paid a peso daily, and those on foot four reales." Aldama added that "the delivery of the Kingdom to the French was nothing more than a pretext for a very opposite end." We know from Hidalgo's own statements that he was convinced from the start that independence should be the goal of the rebellion. This conviction was known by Captain Arias before the Grito, for Juan Ochoa wrote on September 11 that "Dr. [sic] Hidalgo Cura of Dolores is the principal promoter and [he] who suggests the ideas, and his plan is reduced to independence." Nevertheless, it is extremely doubtful that Hidalgo repudiated the King and raised the cry of "Long Live Independence!" Aldama's version of Hidalgo's address is the most reliable. In view of the early insistence by insurgent proclamations that the Revolt was to protect the Kingdom from the French and that all was being carried out in the name of Ferdinand VII, it seems most unlikely that Hidalgo would have rejected this approach at the beginning---the most crucial and vulnerable moment of any rebellion. The fear of the French and the good name of Ferdinand were successful devices for arousing popular enthusiasm. Even Hidalgo with all his impetuosity was not so rash as to risk failure by making the wrong appeal to the masses. He probably recalled Pedro Septien's reminder, reported in Allende's letter of August 31, that "the Indians were indifferent to the word liberty." The most convincing argument against the use of "Independence" in the Grito lies in the fact that Hidalgo and the others were successful in capturing Dolores and raising an initial army of between 500 and 800 men. If such success had been achieved in the name of independence, why did revolutionary propaganda for the next two months rely so heavily on the promise to support Ferdinand VII? What Hidalgo said in Dolores will probably never be known. It is reasonable to suppose, however, that the climax of his speech included one or all of the following: Long Live Ferdinand VII! Long Live America! Long Live Religion! and Death to Bad Government! The plans of the Valladolid Conspiracy provided a precedent for abolition of the tribute and outlaw of slavery and the caste system to attract the Indians ["naturals" or American natives]. We may be almost certain that Hidalgo promised its end (see Hidalgo's Edict Against Slavery). Exploitation of the French threat led naturally to a declaration in defense of religion, another subject of mass appeal. Many believed that Spanish authorities had accepted the anti-Catholic views of the French Revolution. The incorporation of the Virgin of Guadalupe as the principal standard of the rebels took place later in the same day. The cry of "Long Live Our Lady of Guadalupe" was probably not raised until then. Among the Queretaro Conspirators was a grocer named Epigmenio González (1778-1858) whose store and personal effects were seized upon discovery of the Hidalgo conspiracy in fall 1810. The sketch at left was among Gonzales's papers which is a cartoon using the historic Aztec symbol of an eagle perched on cactus. Instead of the snake, the tail of the Spanish lion is in the Mexican eagle's mouth. The lion cries "Long Live America." The caption at top reads "If you confess that America lives, you die, and if you do not die, you will be shorn of your tail, left abject, and stripped of your dominion, pride and honor." There was no way that Spain would admit French influence over New Spain (America). If America separate from France was acknowledged, then French domination of European Spain is admitted. If Spain does not recognize New Spanish America and hold her, then Mexico will fill the gap. The crown above the eagle is thought to suggest that the conspirators objective was autonomy under the monarchy. sdct "...... with three such men as Jose Morelos, I could conquer the world."---Napoleon Bonaparte If Morelos had lived to the year 1821, Iturbide would not have been able to take control of the national insurrection; and the nation would not have passed through a half century of shameful and bloody revolution which caused it to lose half of its territory. Today it would be the powerful republic which we would have expected from seventy years of development initiated by the courage, the abnegation, prudence, and political skill, of which that extraordinary man was the model--written by Porfirio Diaz in 1891 in the album of tributes to Morelos in Casa de Morelos in Morelia (Banner at top right is the Battle Flag of Morelos forces inscribed in Latin "She conquers equally with her eyes and her talons.") After Hidalgo’s death, mestizo parish priest José María Morelos y Pavon was able to organize a number of the independent chieftains across Mexico, established a Congress which created a declaration of rights and independence from Spain under King Ferdinand VII and a Constitution (See Sentimientos de la Nacion) which included abolition of slavery and equality of classes (See Decree Concerning Castes). Morelos, José María Cos and José María Liceaga served as an Executive Junta (Poder Ejecutivo). Father Morelos was captured while attempting to escort the Congress from Vallilodad to join the troops of Gen. Manuel Mier y Terán in Puebla. He is said to have diverted the royal troops attention to a small diversionary force of which he was at the head from the Congress. After capture, Morelos was tried by both military tribunals and the Inquisition. He was defrocked/degraded and executed in December 1815. Gen. Manuel Mier y Terán inherited the leadership of the movement after the death of Morelos, but was unable to unite it. Diverse and independent guerrilla and militia with various motives and loyalties, hostile to the established order continued throughout the provinces including Texas. This dissension facilitated Viceroy Calleja's forces to sequentially crush or keep under control the fragmented movement. The subsequent Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca took a conciliatory stance offering amnesty to former rebels, which according to some historians was much more successful in pacification than the bloody reprisals of Calleja. Until 1820, any organized movement for Mexican independence, except the filibustering action of Xavier Mina and others primarily based in Texas, lay dormant. sdct Emperor Agustín Iturbide "Mexicans!...tell your children ...to think with kindness of the first Chief of the Army of the Three Guarantees...if my children should stand in need of your protection, remember that their father spent the best season of his life in laboring for your welfare!"---Iturbide prior to execution 1824 Motivated by events in Spain which forced post-Napoleonic and tyrannical King Ferdinand VII to restore elements of constitutional government (Constitution of 1812), former Royalist commander Agustín Iturbide, a mestizo accepted as a criollo who opposed the insurgent approach to independence, formed a junta with revolutionary Vicente Guerro to engineer Mexican independence in 1821. He was first groomed by church officials, plotters of the Church of Profesa, whose power and wealth was threatened by liberal Spanish reforms. Independence and maintenance of their local authority in Mexico was their only recourse. They persuaded the Viceroy to appoint Iturbide head of the force preparing to destroy Vicente Guerrero's stronghold, one of the most consistent and most active resistance leader from the time of Morelos' death. Instead of a battle and backed by other conservative and liberal factions in Mexico, they formulated and announced on 24 Feb 1821 the Plan de Iguala after the village of their meeting in the current state of Guerrero. The plan for a constitutional monarchy called for an independent Mexican nation with limited monarchy with the Bourbons having first right to the throne, but if declined an emperor would be elected. Also known as the Plan, Army, or Government of the Three Guarantees (Las Tres Garantias), provided for protection of the Catholic faith without toleration for other and rights and properties of the clergy, Mexican independence and equality of Peninsulares and American Criollos. Numerous factions including older and inactive revolutionaries, new criollo chieftains formed since the death of Morelos and officers of the royal government began to join the movement. The position of Emperor was offered to Ferdinand VII himself provided he would occupy the throne in person and uphold a Constitution of Mexico. Viceroy Apodaca was offered the position of President of a junta to implement the new government, but declared against it and resigned. Newly-appointed and last Viceroy of New Spain, Juan de O’Donoju, arrived and assessing the situation agreed to meet and accept the Plan of Iguala which resulted in the Treaty of Cordova of 24 Aug 1821. A Junta resulted with Iturbide as Admiral and Generalissimo. After the death of O’Donoju and formation of a factionalized Congress of Bourbonites, Republicans and Imperialists, Iturbide was proclaimed as Emperor of Mexico by his military and the Congress was dissolved. (photo: The Charlotte & Maximilian Collection) sdct *** conquered in 1519–1521 by the Spanish under Hernando Cortés. Spain ruled Mexico as part of the viceroyalty of New Spain for the next 300 years until Sept. 16, 1810, when the Mexicans first revolted. They won independence in 1821. From 1821 to 1877, there were two emperors, several dictators, and enough presidents and provisional executives to make a new government on the average of every nine months. *** 1810 Sep 16, In Mexico Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla delivered the cry for freedom in front of a small crowd of his parishioners (The Grito de Dolores) in Dolores Hidalgo. This action stemmed from meetings of the literary and social club of Queretaro (now a central state of Mexico), which included the priest, the mayor of the town, and a local military captain named Ignacio Allende. They believed that New Spain should be governed by the Creoles (criollos) rather than the Gachupines (peninsulares). Rev. Hidalgo was joined by Rev. Jose Maria Morelos. Both priests were later executed by firing squads. When Mexico revolted the Spanish settlements began to fall apart. Under Mexican rule the missions were secularized and the huge land holdings were broken up. At age 55, Hidalgo was a tall, gaunt man who carried his head habitually bent forward, giving him the appearance of a true contemplative. But looks were deceiving. He had a restless, willful nature, and his expressive green eyes shot fire when he argued politics. In his student days, he had won debates and honors; as a theologian he enjoyed considerable local renown. He was a visionary, resentful of authority and with a touch of the crusader about him. (SFC, 5/19/96,CG, p.16)(SCal, Sep, 1995)(WSJ, 8/13/97, p.A12)(AP, 9/16/97)(HNQ, 12/17/00) 1810 Juan Jose de los Reyes Martinez, miner and revolutionary hero (El Pipila), joined some 20,000 rebels who stormed Guanajuato, Mexico, and cornered Spanish colonists inside a granary. Martinez set fire to the granary and died in the flames. (SSFC, 5/4/03, p.D6) *** • 1821 Mexico declares independence from Spain • 1823 Mexico adopts a Federal form of government Mexico reaffirms empresario contracts • 1824 Mexico adopts the Federal Constitution of 1824 Texas and Coahuila are joined together as the state of Coahuila y Tejas • 1829 Centralist revolt overthrows Federalist government, touching off civil war • 1830 Mexico tries to stop immigration from the United States • 1832 Santa Anna backs a Federalist counter revolution Colonists in Texas confront Centralist garrison at Anahuac Colonists adopt Turtle Bayou Resolutions supporting Santa Anna Colonists meet to discuss their concerns over lack of input on government • 1833 Mexican Congress elects Santa Anna president Santa Anna retires to his estate and allows his vice-president to govern Colonists reconvene and send Austin to Mexico City to ask for statehood Austin is arrested for anti-government activities and jailed C. y T. legislators vote to move state's capitol from Saltillo to Monclova • 1834 Santa Anna returns to office to stop V.P. Gómez Farías' liberal reforms C. y T. legislators split Texas into 3 departments increasing Federalist control Austin released from jailed but not allowed to leave Mexico City Santa Anna disbands the existing Mexican Congress and forms a new one C. y T. declares Santa Anna's action illegal, announcing its opposition to him Federalists and Centralists in C. y T. divide into armed camps • 1835 Federalist revolts break out in several Mexican states Santa Anna and Cos crush revolt in Zacatecas Colonists in Texas confront Centralist garrison at Anahuac once more Santa Anna sends Cos to put down revolt in Coahuila y Tejas Governor of C. y T. changes capitol to Béxar but is captured by Cos Austin is allowed to return to Texas and calls for revolt against Centralists Cos issues arrest warrants for rebel leaders and tries to disarm Texans Fighting breaks out on October 2 at Gonzales over "Come & Take It" gun Centralist Congress announce plan to convert states into "departments" and produce a new constitution along the Centralist model Austin leads "Army of the People" to San Antonio de Béxar The Consultation calls for restoration of Federal Constitution of 1824 Cos and his garrison under siege throughout November Texans force Cos to surrender Béxar but allow him and his army to leave • 1836 Santa Anna organizes an army to crush the revolt in Texas Texans are undecided on what to do next and break into factions Feb. 23 Santa Anna enters Béxar as rebels withdraw to the Alamo Constitutional Convention at Washington opened deliberations on March 1 Texas declares independence on March 2 Santa Anna attacks and captures the Alamo on March 6 News of the Alamo's fall sets off the "Runaway Scrape" Houston withdraws his forces eastward Fannin's command is massacred on March 27 Provisional government of Texas caught up in the exodus to the east Houston defeats the Mexican vanguard at San Jacinto on April 21 Santa Anna is captured on April 22 Santa Anna and Texas officials sign the Treaty of Velaso on May 14 *** EMPRESARIO. An empresario was a land agent or land contractor. Under the system used by the Mexican government as a means of colonization (see MEXICAN COLONIZATION LAWS), outstanding Texas empresarios included Stephen F. Austin, Samuel May Williams, Green DeWitt, Martín De León, Haden Edwards, Sterling C. Robertson, James Power, James Hewetson, John McMullen, James McGloin, and Arthur G. Wavell.qq *** CONSTITUTION OF 1824. Constitutional government in Texas began with the Mexican federal Constitution of 1824, which, to some degree, was patterned after the United States Constitution but resembled more the Spanish Constitution of 1812. Congress was made the final interpreter of the document; the Catholic religion was made the state faith; and the church was supported by the public treasury. The president and vice president were elected for four-year terms by the legislative bodies of the states, the lower house of Congress to elect in case of a tie or lack of a majority. There were numerous limitations on the powers of the president. The Congress was composed of two houses meeting annually from January 1 to April 15. The president could prolong the regular session for an additional thirty days and could call extra sessions. Deputies in the lower house served two years, while senators were selected by their state legislatures for four-year terms. The judicial power was vested in a Supreme Court and superior courts of departments and districts. The Supreme Court was composed of eleven judges and the attorney general. There was no particular effort to define the rights of the states in the confederacy. They were required to separate executive, legislative, and judicial functions in their individual constitutions, which were to be in harmony with the national constitution, but local affairs were independent of the general government. Stephen F. Austinqv conferred with the Mexican leaders who framed the Constitution of 1824, and Juan José María Erasmo Seguínqv represented Texas in the constituent assembly; the farmers of Austin's colony contributed several hundred bushels of corn to help pay Seguín's expenses. The Anglo-Americans in Texas were not represented, and the instrument was never submitted to a vote of the people for ratification. *** The War of Independence 1810 September 16: Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753-1811) preaches his Grito de Dolores, sparking rebellion 1811 Hidalgo is captured and executed; leadership of the movement passes to Father José Maria Morelos y Pavón (1765-1815) 1813 Morelos calls a congress at Chilpancingo, which drafts a Declaration of Independence 1815 Morelos is captured and executed The Early National Period 1821 Vicente Guerrero, a rebel leader, and Agustín de Iturbide (1783-1824), a Spanish colonel converted to the rebel cause, rejuvenate the Independence movement. Spain recognizes Mexican independence with the Treaty of Córdoba. 1822 Iturbide is namedEmperor of Mexico, which stretches from California through Central America 1823 After 10 months in office, Emperor Agustín is turned out 1824 A new constitution creates a federal republic, the Estados Unidos Mexicanos; modeled on the U.S. Constitution, the Mexican version retains the privileges of the Catholic Church and gives the president extraordinary "emergency" powers 1829 President Vicente Guerrero abolishes slavery. A Spanish attempt at reconquest is halted by General Antonio López de Santa Anna (1794-1876), already a hero for his role in the overthrow of Emperor Agustín 1833 Santa Anna is elected president by a huge majority; he holds the office for 11 of its 36 changes of hands by 1855 1836 Although voted in as a liberal, Santa Anna abolishes the 1824 constitution. Already dismayed at the abolition of slavery, Texas - whose population is largely American - declares its independence. Santa Anna successfully besieges the Texans at the Alamo. But a month later he is captured by Sam Houston following the Battle of San Jacinto. Texas gains its independence as the Lone Star Republic. ***

.

Chapter 2 notes:
Section 6: p. 89 p. 91: strange appearance of European aliens in the New World; disappointment by new arrivals; Columbus’s difficulties in the Caribbean andp. 92: efforts by his successors to get rich; backgrounds of Spanish conquest p. 93: social class structure (caballeros, hidalgos, commoners); religious classifications in Spain; Santo Domingo p. 94: devastating effects of diseases on natives; early battles and explorations of México by Cuba’s governor’s forces; Cortésp. 97: his daring defiance of Velázquez and the expedition to Méxicop. 98: Aguilar’s help; Tabasco victory, the first of many; Veracruz; Marina (Malinche)’s role and language skill; Spanish “disease of the heart that could only be cured by gold;” p. 99: encounter with Moctezuma; protecting his position at Veracruzp. 100: Totonacs of Cempaola welcome Cortés; firming up the support at Veracruz and with royal authorities in Spain (la quinta/el quinto)p. 101: leadership qualities and actions by Cortés with followers and foes (including sinking his ships);200 miles into the interior toward the Aztecs; p. 102: temporary but serious problem with the suspicious Tlaxcalans; horses, dogs, p. 103: and guns; Tlaxcalans join Spanish; p. 104: foiling the Cholulan’s plot and unleashing a devastating attack (much criticized later), breaking the spirit and hopes of Moctezuma and the Aztec leaders; p. 105: negotiations in mixed fear and greed in the pass between Popocatéptl and Iztaccíhuatl volcanoes; p. 106: maintaining the terrifying impression of supermen moving toward the great city; p. 107: encounter between Moctezuma and Cortés in Tenochititlán: November 8, 1519.
Section 7: p. 109: Bernal Díaz del Castillo’s comments; seizing of Moctecuma as hostage; p.110: treatment of the hostage; Aztec populace’s response to Spain’s presence; Cortés’s plans; p. 111: the fleet awaiting Cortés; Velázquez’s response to Cortés; arrival of the Narváez expedition at Veracruz and Cempoala and message to Aztecs; Moctezuma’s plot; p. 112: Pedro de Alvarado left in charge; surprise attack on Narváez’s troops; crossbow; p. 113: pistol picture; Cortés wins over the defeated again; returning to possible disaster in Tenochotitlán under Alvarado’s leadership; p. 114: wiping out Aztec nobility; Aztec revolt held down by Moctezuma (!); the Aztec trap versus Spanish weaponry (cannons, harquebus; falconet, crossbow); accidental (?) death of Moctezuma; p. 115: modern rating of Moctezuma; rejection of truce; retreat while loaded with gold, jewelry; La Noche Triste; p. 116: chaos and attack from the rear causes great losses on both sides->; p. 117: revived plans for capturing the city by both land and water; victorious Aztecs anoint Cuitláhuac; p. 118: smallpox equalizes smaller Spanish force with vast Aztec strength killing Cuitláhuac->Cuauhtémoc=last Aztec emperor; five months later Spanish attacked again from Texcoco; p. 119: more Indian allies recruited; boats built elsewhere and carried over mountains to Valley of Anáhuac by 8000 Tlaxcalans; heavily-armed Spanish attack force including about 100,000 Indian allies; Cortés command his navy with its mission to neutralize fleet of 500 Aztec canoes; penetration of canals, burning structures->fierce fighting on causeways for weeks; p. 121: leveling of city begun, esp. of temples, palaces used as forts; aqueducts cut and navy blocked re-supply of food and potable water; Cuauhtémoc (“Falling Eagle”) fled but was captured and gave memorable surrender speech to Cortés; summary of methods, results of destruction of Aztec empire.

Chapter III notes: Section 9: p. 145: tensions between royal orders in Spain and their being carried out in the New World; Council of the Indies; audienda (and oidores: see p. 132-5); p. 146: visitador, visita, juicio de residencia; p. 147: by Viceroys Mendoza & Velasco (and other 60 viceroys); role of corregidor de indios (see 123-124 about encomienda ban) and p. 148: various kinds of districts and duties governing officials (titles); p. 149: royal versus municipal officials in the cabildo from l5l9; criollos; governador of Indian towns; p. 150: Indian efforts to hold on to control (cofradias); rebellions even by Mexico's elites against Spain's rule (criollos and Martín Cortés); p. 151: causes and results of various protests: taxes, floods, earthquakes, crop failures, racial tensions; weakened control over northern Mexico (Zacatecas mines, Chichimec raids); p. 152: food supplements and missionary activities reduce tensions; slender economic value of northern Méxicocapture, enslaving Indians to sell to miners; Monterey and Nueva León; Coronado's explorations; p. 153: Onate's expansion into modern New Mexico pueblos; Pacific expeditions unite Philippines and Mexico commerce: Asian goods (silk, porcelain, spices, cotton) via Manila to Acapulco donkey trains across MéxicoVeracruz by ship to Spain; French “threat” promotes expansion by Spain into Texas & Florida; English Protestants and pirates emerged as new threat in North America and Caribbean; p. 154: French pirates and "filibusters" also attack along sea routes; hassling John Hawkins, punishing Englishmen for "heresy" by Inquisition led to massive retaliation by England against Spain's ports and ships p. 155: by Francis Drake, Thomas Cavendish in the Pacific; p. 156: French pirate attack on Veracruz in 1683 Section 10: p. 158: Spain's “mercantilism” policy versus wishes/interests of residents of Mexico; decline of encomienda system; p. 159: variety of successful economic activities of Cortés himself; Spanish immigrants comprise a working class (note: surprising success of many energetic mestizos); pre-Spanish slavery of Indians continued, and Spain enslaved some as well despite official outlawing of slavery (Bartolomé de las Casas); Spain continued repartimiento (= Aztec cuatequil system) of 45 days a year of forced-labor as a tax; p. 161: frequent use of peonage (semi-permanent slavery until debts were paid); continuing Aztec practice of overworking tamemes (porters); silver mining successes at Zacatecas, Guanajuato, San Luis Potosí, Pachuca funded the colonial economy, shifting it to north and west of Mexico City; p. 162: paid mining labor and working conditions; p. 163: bullionism doctrine's effects (mercantilism); p. 164: new technology for extraction of silver from ore; new crops from Europe and personal gardens; p. 165: unwise restrictions on certain crops (olives, grapes) beer substitution; cochineal from nopal cactus; indigo, cacao, vanilla, henequen (agave fiber); introduction of various livestock animals for ranches; the Mesta; p. 166: sheep introduced to Mexico's arid northern haciendas; methods of combining lands into haciendas; ecological effects of mining and agriculture; p. 167: Spain's limits on Mexican industry; problem with production of silk; obrajes for cotton & silk; functions, benefits ofgremios; p. 168: government controls (snooping?) and taxes on all imports & exports based in Seville, Spain  p. 169: & Veracruz, Mexico; trade fairs at Veracruz, Mexico City, Jalapa andp. 170: Acapulco; Manila Galleon's contents; Spanish king's monopolies: mercury, gunpowder, salt, pulque, tobacco (later 1/5 royal tax reduced to 1/10), plus fees for selling offices, land, licenses; many taxes and a hated sales tax (alcabala) up to 14%; p- 171: Mexico's economy flourished through much of 156os-1700 despite oppressive Hapsburg kings’ rules. Section 11: p. 173: Church was “the most pervasive of colonial institutions;” patronato real=extraordinary power of Spanish kings after 1492 as actual head of church; "secular clergy" versus "regular clergy;" p. 174: bishoprics created as early as 1527; Zurnárraga as "Protector of the Indians;" p. 175: Juan Diego's vision of the Virgin of Guadalupe; spread of regular clergy missions; p. 176: Motolinia's claims about conversions; p. 177: Jesuit role in Mexico/modern US until 1767; training Indians for church service; painful, gradual, partly-successful transition from pagan to Christian (identifying Christian figures with existing gods, etc.); welcoming European tools, foods, feast days, pageants; p. 178: priests' problems with cofradias; tension between churchmen and encomenderos/conquistadores p. 180: Juan de Palafox dispute; p. 181: church's gradual takeover of vast properties and funds, lending to the elites (interest-free); extravagant church construction—much of it given to the needy, but too much thought wasted on immoral, opulent living by the secular clergy plus physical abuse of parishionersp. 182: decline of reforming, crusading spirit of clergy; p. 183: numbers, types, and location of priests and nuns to 1820; p. 184: Spain's ultra-Catholic kings felt need to maintain purity of church-state: opposed Protestants, Jews and converses; The "Inquisition" & censorship; p. 185: even humanist Zumárraga had an Indian chief burned for "heresy" and maybe his political/social statements; concern with witchcraft, sexual matters, rape by priests in confessional booths, heresy + refusing to "recant," etc.; punishments: fines, flogging, humiliation by crowds to strangling and burning at a stake; executions for heresy began or being "crypto-Jews" began soon after the Conquest: 1528; first official auto da fe: in 1574; 1820 p. 188: intense effect of the church in Mexico:  p. 190: Section 12: p. 192: Euromestizo, lndomestizo, Afromestizo. mulatto, zambo; p. 193: typical 1521 Spaniard in Mexico from lower nobility (hidalgo) or modest means; p. 194: opportunities in New World allowed some upward social movement by commoners (mostly working class tradesmen, craftsmen) and hidalgos "Don;" comfortable life of Cortes; next generation of Spaniards differed from conquistadores; p. 195: bitterness of veterans against newcomers, some of whom left for Perú and Guatemala; Basques; gachupines/peninsulares; criollos p. 196: despite some successes (hacendados) they resented discrimination by top class; as p. 197 mestizos with ever-increasing numbers as wives stayed in Spain and locals Spaniards sought native companions; church for a time encouraged singles to marry Indian noblewomen; wealth & property considerations ranked high in marriage and re-marriage; p. 198: special cases of Martín, son of Cortés and his casta (Indian) mistress Malinche & also (conquistador of Guatemala) Alvarado's daughter; p. 199: Indian population's steep decline from disease plagues (note: Spain with major labor shortages had no desire to exterminate Indians, unlike US in i870s-i89os; despite low opinion of Indians, religious and humanists defended them (papal bull: Sublimis Deus) p. 200-201: wide variety of Indian response to subjugation from passive acceptance to degrees of creative resistance to local riots to fleeing to remote regions; p. 202: importation of black slaves from Africa via Caribbean sugar islands and for a time equaled white population's numbers; valued for superior working abilities—made overseers of Indians at times, profit-sharing; mulattoes; p. 203: mulatto-mestizo offspring weakened African identity in time; fear of slave rebellions provoked harsh measures; p. 204: Yanga's successful slave rebellion & guerrilla warfare; p. 205: variety of other non-Spaniards who arrived from various places; women's rights (especially the unmarried) despite popularity of machismo; p. 206: Tenochititlán’s 200,000 drops sharply but by 1800 was largest city in Western Hemisphere (137,000); recovery of Indian numbers after plagues...
Section 13: p. 209: massive effort by the religious to educate and convert Indians led by Pedro d eGante; p. 210: school of Santa Cruz de Tlateloco by Viceroy Mendoza and Bishop Zumárraga; Don Vasco de Quiroga; p. 211: teaching Indians useful commercial crafts (still practiced by the Tarascans!); Jesuit San Gregorio Magno school, et al. p. 212: Franciscan and Augustinian schools; in Mexico City: Royal and Pontifical University of México=oldest in Western Hemisphere: 1553; [2nd = Sucre, Bolivia: San Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca, founded in 1624., 3rd =: San Carlos in Antigua, Guatemala: 1676]; Gante's early schools for Indian girls andp. 213: orphaned mestizos; key documents from the period by Cortés, Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Motolinia, de Zorita; others (including Diego de Landa's massive writings and archives on the Mayas of Yucatan) p. 217: blending of Indian (esp. Aztec) and European Christian music and European instruments-~ p. 218: efforts to end traditional Indian and African dances, music, and poetry considered to be grossly immoral, while allowing and substituting the vilancico; opera Parténope; p. 219: adapting Renaissance architecture to the New World's materials; p. 220: Indian influence with open-air chapels (fear at first of massacre in enclosed buildings) ; blends of Romanesque, churrigueresque (p. 181: "Mexican gothic"), and Moorish (mudejar), and plateresque; [cathedral-building lasted through several architects, each of whom usually changed to his favorite for his own additions, except in Morelia's cathedral]; p. 222: Tolsa's “the Caballito;” See list of artists and their influences: pp. 222-223; p. 224: unruly festivals and spectacles in a spectacular, elegant city setting; as now, colors dominated the landscape from flowers to dress style to building paint; p. 225: extravagant personal appearance (even for one's servants) alongside vagabonds (picaros) and diseased, handicapped beggars; other descriptions of the smelly street life; p. 228: health and sanitation problems through much of the city; entertainments: plays, music, salon society, recitals, dancing, bullfights, gambling, fireworks, heavy drinking & other types of leisure time for city dwellers, plus religious processions; p. 229: the late-afternoon paseo in Alameda Park where young singles of both sexes (girls with chaperones) arrived to see and be seen; mascaradas with parades and performers; p. 230: risky nights and rural travel; very public punishment of criminals was cruel and appalling to see; the wealthy, well-connected were allowed execution by de- capitation or gairoting in relative privacy instead in the public square (plaza mayor or plaza de armas), p. 231: severe health problems, epidemics (esp. smallpox matlazahuatl)', public institutions for venereal disease and insanity; low state of medical/surgical services led to improved education and certification of doctors after 1535; urban medical services remained dismally bad but perhaps no worse than in European city of the time; México City and surrounding “New Spain” quickly developed cultural life greatly exceeding that of most European cities of the time, many of which remain in place now.

Note: this checklist of terms from Test #1 includes “distractors” (Incorrect answers from multiple choice questions) AND terms to select to identify in a sentence or two. I had intended for us to discuss some of them (without this list) last week, but I hope that it will help make up for the lost class time. ;=}
________________________
“secular” clergy
52-year cycle
allies such as the Tlaxcalans and Totonacs
Alvarado & Guzmán
Anáhuac
ancient prophecy about Quetzalcóatl
architecture of México’s parish churches as well as cathedrals
audiencia
awesome stone structures and statues
Aztec
Bartolomé de Las Casas
beans
Bering Strait theory
Bernal Díaz del Castillo
Black Legend about Spain
black population of México
caballeros
cacao
Cancún
catastrophic loss of indigenous lives to European diseases
cenote-based ruin with its grand El Castillo
Chapultepec hill
Chapúltepec.
Chichén Itzá
Chichimecs & later Mexica
churrigueresque
cofradía
colonies to supply raw materials and buy Spain’s manufactured products
control and taxes in behalf of Spain’s king
conversos
corn
corregidor
Coxcox and his daughter
criollos
cruel and greedy oppressors
Cuauhtémoc
Cuernavaca.
Culhuacán.
diet of typical Mayas and other Mesoamericans
diverse people of México and Mesoamerica
export more value than the nation imports
extend equal citizenship to residents of overseas lands
finding and mining silver
forcing Indians to serve as efficient slaves
Formative” period around 1150 BC
French and English pirates and filibusters
frequent wars
gachupines
God, Gold, and Glory
Golden Age or Classic period of Mexican history
government officials often had to intervene to protect Indians from church officials
Guadalajara
harquebus
hidalgos
highest religious officials in México…to be identified wealthy landowning class
hunter-gatherer Paleolithic nomads
Ice-Age Siberia
importing Philippine porcelain, silks, and spices to and across México for export to Spain
insulae
introducing European crops and livestock.
la quinta real
Life in México’s first century of Spanish control
machismo
Malinche
manmade islands in a lake
mano-and-metate
married Indians or mestizos
mascarada
math, medicine, & astronomical calendars
matlazáhuatl
Maya era from 300 to 800 AD
Mayas…outdid their European contemporaries
measure nation’s wealth only by accumulated gold and silver
meat
mercantilism
mestizos.
México City’s public spaces
missionaries and some church officials tended to treat Indians well
Mixtec
Monte Albán
most influential site for the Mayas (200 BC-600 AD)
mudéjar
Narváez expedition
Noche Triste
Oaxaca
obraje the crown’s quinto
ollama
Olmec
paseo
Pátzcuaro
Pedro de Alvarado
Pedro de Gante & Zumárraga
plateresque
pochteca
Popocatéptl & Iztaccíhuatl
Post-Classic period
producing agricultural goods
Pyramids of the Moon and Sun near Lake Texcoco
smallpox
squash.
sugar plantations earliest universities in the Western Hemisphere
Tarascans
Taxco
Templo Mayor
Templo Mayor
Tenochititlán
Tenochititlán
Teotihuacan
Tepexpán
the Mesta or gremios
The Mexica/Aztec culture
Tláloc
tolerant toward heretics, Jews, and Protestants?
Toltec Artificers
Tula
Valley of Anáhuac
Vasco de Quiroga
Velázquez
Veracruz and La Venta
Viceroy
Viceroy Mendoza.
worship a variety of gods in shockingly bloody, cruel rites
Xitle volcano and Cuicuilco
Xochimilco
Zacatecas.
Zapotec.

HST 3058A: México, CRN 27570 Spring, 2006 Dowling College Racanelli Room 322 (changed from 419) Thursdays, 5:30-8:10 PM John D. White, instructor Email: jdwhite5@yahoo.com Web site: http://historyliny.tripod.com

Continuing questions:
• [1] When/how did the first “Indians” arrive in the México as well as late-comers like the “Aztecs?”
• [2] What cultural institutions were exterminated and what have survived?
• [3] What Europeans or others arrived next in the New World and what have been the results of meeting of these cultures?
• [4] Is there a distinctly Mexican culture, and if so what is it?
• [5] What is and what should be the relation between Mexico and the United States (EEUU)?
• [6] Is US and other foreign investment in Latin American economies (cheap labor, minimal environmental restriction, etc.) more helpful or harmful? Is México a special case because of NAFTA?
• [7] How will the new Central American Common Market (five nations) affect México, NAFTA, Mercosur, and other regional economic pacts?

*** Schedule *** PLEASE NOTE CHANGE FOR FEBRUARY 9 ***

February 2: Introduction and highlights from chapter 1. Discuss different perceptions of “time,” “progress,” effects of Spanish conquest on ejido; social class systems since 1521; “God, Gold, Glory”  “Black Legend,” historical linearity and other non-Mexican ways of thinking about a culture. Video and other audiovisual presentations for inclusion in “Audiovisual Journal.” Distribute terms list from Sections of 1-5 of Chapter I in the text for next quiz February 16. February 9: Review of newspaper clipping report, remaining “key terms” from chapter I (sections 1-5). Video note-taking, handouts, and lectures on early days of “New Spain.” Quiz on first three sections from chapter I. “God, Gold, and Glory;” “Black Legend;” social classes and problems with the mother country. February 16: Chapter II, section 8—Begin Spain’s system of settlement of New World
February 23: Spain’s control, evangelism, and taxation of the three main New World regions (México, Guatemala/Central America, Lima, Perú/South America). Continue reading into chapter III.
March 2: Finish Chapters I-III, (through section 13). (Test # 1 last half of class meeting) chapters I-III.
March 9: Spain’s defeat>Independence for México (and most other former Spanish colonies in the New World) Continue through section 16.
March 16: Iturbide’s brief empire, (section 17)àThe Republic’s painful beginnings through section 21. Prepare Chapter V for next class.
March 23: The Reform Era, Chapter VI. (French invasion and expulsion)
March 30: Modernization of México—at a very high price—in the Díaz era, Chapter VII (test # 2 last half of class meeting: Chapters IV through VII) [changed to IV through VI]
April 6: The Revolution of 1910, Part I (military)

April 10-16: Spring recess

April 20: The Revolution of 1910, Part II (constructing a new democracy)
April 27: Chapter X: Revolutionary democracy shifts toward PRI’s one-party plutocracy.
May 4: Overview of México since NAFTA and election of Fox, including US relations.
May 11: Final Exam
[May 15: Spring Semester Ends]

*** First report topics: ***

V^V^V^V^V^V^V^V
PEOPLE important to México up to the time of the Revolution of 1910:
1. Quetzalcóatl
2. Mixcóatl
3. Topiltzin
4. Moctezuma I
5. Moctezuma II
6. Cuauhtémoc
7. Cortés
8. Bernal Díaz del Castillo
9. Malinche
10. Diego de Landa
11. Bartolomé de las Casas
12. Vasco de Quiroga
13. Juan de Zumárraga
14. Eusebio Kino
15. Junípero Serra
16. Juan Diego
17. Miguel and Josefa Domínguez
18. Virrey (viceroy) Mendoza
19. Virrey Revillagigedo
20. Virrey José de Iturrigaray
21. Nuño de Guzmán
22. Pedro de Alvarado
23. Marcos de Niza (“Frey”)
24. Juan de Oñate
25. Coronado
26. Pánfilo de Narvaez
27. Cabeza de Vaca
28. Estéban the Moor (with de Vaca) 29. Fray Escalante
30. Juan de Oñate
31. Father Miguel Hidalgo
32. Father Morelos
33. Emperor Agustín de Iturbide
34. Santa Anna
35. Benito Juárez
36. Emperor Maximilian
37. Porfirio Díaz


V^V^V^V^V^V^V^V
PLACES important in early Indian or Conquest history:
1. Cuicuilco
2. Monte Albán
3. Xochicalco
4. Cacaxtla
5. Teotihuacán
6. Chichén Itzá
7. Uxmal
8. Tlatilco
9. Tula
10. Mitla
11. Tikal (Guatemala)
12. Calakmul
13. Plaza Mayor (México City) 14. Tepeyac Hill
15. Copán (Honduras)
16. El Tajín
17. Tulúm
18. Palenque
19. Tenochtitlán
20. Lake Texcoco
21. Veracruz
22. Acapulco
23. Cuernavaca
24. Quivira & Cíbola
25. La Valenciana [mine at Guanajuato]
26. San Luís Potosí
27. Tzintzuntzán
28. Cempoala (or Cempoalla) battle
29. Tlaxcala (or Tlascala)
30. Chapúltepec hill
31. Cholula
32. La Venta


V^V^V^V^V^V^V^V
INDIAN TRIBES of México (up to 1848):
1. Huichol
2. Tarahumara
3. Tarascan
4. Yaqui
5. Otomí
6. Tlascala
7. Totonac
8. Mexica/Aztec
9. Classic Maya
10. Tabasco Maya
11. Tzeltal Maya
12. Zapotec
13. Olmec
14. Huíchol
15. Chichimec
16. Oaxaca
17. Zuñi
18. Pima
19. Papago
20. Tewa
21. Ácoma
22. Tiguex (Tigua)
23. Cuijla (in the town of Cuajinicuilapa)
24. Mascogo (black Seminoles of Coahuila)
25. Kickapoo
26. Mescalero Apache
27. Chiricahua Apache
28. Karankawa (or Tonkawa)
29. Comanche
30. Paiute [Southern]
31. Ute [Southern]
32. Laguna group (Katishtya, Zia, Oraibi, Sandia, and Jemez.)
33. Taos (Tua) and various other Pueblo tribes: Pokkwoge, Hopi, Picuris, Tua, Oke, Tesque

Web resources for first look at various topic: (please share with us any others you find helpful)
http://www.mexican-embassy.dk/history.html
http://www.geographia.com/mexico/mexicohistory.htm
http://www.educationplanet.com/search/Social_Studies/History/Mexican_History http://www.mexonline.com/history.htm
http://www.mexconnect.com/mex_/history/historyindex.html
http://www.historicaltextarchive.com/links.php?op=viewlink&cid=1
http://www.historychannel.com/exhibits/mexico/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Mexico
http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/destinations/north-america/mexico/
http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/46/
http://www.humanities-interactive.org/splendors/timeline.htm
http://www.ajmorris.com/mex/hist/
http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/1mexhistbio.html (biographies)
http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/1mexhist.html
http://www.mexperience.com/history/default.htm
http://countrystudies.us/mexico/
http://www.brownpride.com/history/default.asp
http://www.brown.edu/Facilities/University_Library/exhibits/ThreeForThree/Mexican.html
http://www.geographia.com/mexico/
http://www.differentworld.com/mexico/common/pages/history.htm (timeline with other world events by comparison)
http://www.globalvolunteers.org/1main/mexico/mexicohistory.htm
http://vlib.iue.it/history/americas/mexico.html (in Spanish from Autonomous National University of México)
http://www.teachersfirst.com/cinco.htm
http://gomexico.about.com/od/historyofmexico/
http://www.answers.com/topic/history-of-mexico
http://www.questia.com/library/history/north-american-history/mexican-history/
http://www.lessonplanet.com/search/Social_Studies/History/Mexican_History
http://www.ipl.org/div/subject/browse/hum30.55.50/
http://mexicochannel.net/cgi-bin/channel.cgi?ancient05

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Geographical Information about México from the CIA World Handbook (1996) The Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the country into temperate and tropical zones. Land north of the 24th parallel experiences cooler temperatures during the winter months. South of the 24th parallel, temperatures are fairly constant year round and vary solely as a function of elevation. Areas south of the 24th parallel with elevations up to 1,000 meters (the southern parts of both coastal plains as well as the Yucatan Peninsula), have a yearly median temperature between 24°C and 28°C. Temperatures here remain high throughout the year, with only a 5°C difference between winter and summer median temperatures. Although low-lying areas north of the twentieth-fourth parallel are hot and humid during the summer, they generally have lower yearly temperature averages (from 20°C to 24°C) because of more moderate conditions during the winter. Between 1,000 and 2,000 meters, one encounters yearly average temperatures between 16°C and 20°C. Towns and cities at this elevation south of the 24th parallel have relatively constant, pleasant temperatures throughout the year, whereas more northerly locations experience sizeable seasonal variations. Above 2,000 meters, temperatures drop as low as an average yearly range between 8°C and 12°C in the Cordillera Neovolcánica. At 2,300 meters, Mexico City has a yearly median temperature of 15°C with pleasant summers and mild winters. Average daily highs and lows for May, the warmest month, are 26°C and 12°C, and average daily highs and lows for January, the coldest month, are 19°C and 6°C. Rainfall varies widely both by location and season. Arid or semiarid conditions are encountered in the Baja Peninsula, the northwestern state of Sonora, the northern altiplano, and significant portions of the southern altiplano. Rainfall in these regions averages between 300 and 600 millimeters per year. Average rainfall totals are between 600 and 1,000 millimeters in most of the year in most of the major populated areas of the southern altiplano, including Mexico City and Guadalajara. Low-lying areas along the Gulf of Mexico receive in excess of 1,000 millimeters of rainfall in an average year, with the wettest region being the southeastern state of Tabasco, which typically receives approximately 2,000 millimeters of rainfall on an annual basis. Parts of the northern altiplano and high peaks in the Sierra Madre Occidental and the Sierra Madre Oriental occasionally receive significant snowfalls. Mexico has pronounced wet and dry seasons. Most of the country experiences a rainy season from June to mid-October and significantly less rain during the remainder of the year. February and July generally are the driest and wettest months, respectively. Mexico City, for example, receives an average of only 5 millimeters of rain during February but more than 160 millimeters in July. Coastal areas, especially those along the Gulf of Mexico, experience the largest amounts of rain in September. Tabasco typically records more than 300 millimeters of rain during that month. A small coastal area of northwestern coastal Mexico around Tijuana has a Mediterranean climate with considerable coastal fog and a rainy season that occurs in winter. Mexico lies squarely within the hurricane belt, and all regions of both coasts are susceptible to these storms from June through November. Hurricanes on the Pacific coast are less frequent and often less violent than those affecting Mexico's eastern coastline. Several hurricanes per year strike the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico coastline, however, and these storms bring high winds, heavy rain, extensive damage, and occasional loss of life. Hurricane Hugo passed directly over Cancún in September 1989, with winds in excess of 200 kilometers per hour producing major damage to hotels in the resort area. In September 1988, Hurricane Gilbert struck northeast Mexico. Flooding from the heavy rain in that storm killed dozens in the Monterrey area and caused extensive damage to livestock and vegetable crops. Environmental Conditions Mexico faces significant environmental challenges affecting almost every section of the country. Vast expanses of southern and southeastern tropical forests have been denuded for cattle-raising and agriculture. For example, tropical forests covered almost half of the state of Tabasco in 1940 but less than 10 percent by the late 1980s. During the same period, pastureland increased from 20 to 60 percent of the state's total area. Analysts reported similar conditions in other tropical sections of Mexico. Deforestation has contributed to serious levels of soil erosion nationwide. In 1985 the government classified almost 17 percent of all land as totally eroded, 31 percent in an accelerated state of erosion, and 38 percent demonstrating signs of incipient erosion. Soil destruction is particularly pronounced in the north and northwest, with more than 60 percent of land considered in a total or accelerated state of erosion. Fragile because of its semiarid and arid character, the soil of the region has become increasingly damaged through excessive cattle-raising and irrigation with waters containing high levels of salinity. The result is a mounting problem of desertification throughout the region. Mexico's vast coastline faces a different, but no less difficult, series of environmental problems. For example, inadequately regulated petroleum exploitation in the Coatzacoalcos-Minatitlán zone in the Gulf of Mexico has caused serious damage to the waters and fisheries of Río Coatzacoalcos. The deadly explosion that racked a working-class neighborhood in Guadalajara in April 1992 serves as an appropriate symbol of environmental damage in Mexico. More than 1,000 barrels of gasoline seeped from a corroded Mexican Petroleum (Petróleos Mexicanos--Pemex) pipeline into the municipal sewer system, where it combined with gases and industrial residuals to produce a massive explosion that killed 190 persons and injured nearly 1,500 others. Mexico City confronts authorities with perhaps their most daunting environmental challenge. Geography and extreme population levels have combined to produce one of the world's most polluted urban areas. Mexico City sits in a valley surrounded on three sides by mountains, which serve to trap contaminants produced by the metropolitan area's 15 million residents. One government study in the late 1980s determined that nearly 5 million tons of contaminants were emitted annually in the atmosphere, a tenfold increase over the previous decade. Carbons and hydrocarbons from the region's more than 3 million vehicles account for approximately 80 percent of these contaminants, with another 15 percent, primarily of sulfur and nitrogen, coming from industrial plants. During the dry winter months, untreated fecal matter also becomes airborne. The resulting dangerous mix is responsible for a wide range of respiratory illnesses. One study of twelve urban areas worldwide in the mid-1980s concluded that the residents of Mexico City had the highest levels of lead and cadmium in their blood. The volume of pollutants from Mexico City has damaged the surrounding ecosystem as well. For example, wastewater from Mexico City that flows north and is used for irrigation in the state of Hidalgo has been linked to congenital birth defects and high levels of gastrointestinal diseases in that state. Beginning in the mid-1980s, the government enacted numerous antipollution policies in Mexico City with varied degrees of success. Measures such as vehicle emissions inspections, the introduction of unleaded gasoline, and the installation of catalytic converters on new vehicles helped reduce pollution generated by trucks and buses. In contrast, one of the government's most prominent actions, the No Driving Day program, may have inadvertently contributed to higher pollution levels. Under the program, metropolitan area residents were prohibited from driving their vehicles one day each workweek based on the last number of their license plate. However, those with the resources to do so purchased additional automobiles to use on the day their principal vehicle was prohibited from driving, thus adding to the region's vehicle stock. Thermal inversions reached such dangerous levels at various times in the mid-1990s that the government declared pollution emergencies, necessitating sharp temporary cutbacks in vehicle use and industrial production. Data as of June 1996 NOTE: The information regarding Mexico on this page is re-published from The Library of Congress Country Studies and the CIA World Factbook. No claims are made regarding the accuracy of Mexico Climate information contained here. All suggestions for corrections of any errors about Mexico Climate should be addressed to the Library of Congress and the CIA.

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